CONSTRUCTIVISM

FORUM: CONSTRUCTIVISM AS A PARADIGM FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

SITI ZARINA BT SYED NORDIN
 * HOST:**

toc 1. SURINA BINTI MUHAMMAD FAKHRUDDIN 2. ZAIDAD FARHAH BT BAHARUDIN 3. MAZLINA BT YAHYA
 * PANEL :**

= PUSINGAN 1 = = = = 1. Apakah makna Constructivism =
 * Constructivism** adalah teori psikologi ilmu pengetahuan di mana ianya menerangkan bahawa manusia membina sendiri makna ilmu pengetahuan melalui pengalaman dan pengetahuan sedia ada. Konstruktivisime merupakan proses pembelajaran yang menerangkan bagaimana pengetahuan disusun dalam minda manusia. Unsur-unsur konstruktivisme telah lama dipraktikkan dalam kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran di peringkat sekolah, maktab dan universiti tetapi tidak begitu ketara dan tidak ditekankan.

Mengikut kefahaman konstruktivisme, ilmu pengetahuan sekolah tidak boleh dipindahkan daripada guru kepada guru dalam bentuk yang serba sempurna. Murid perlu bina sesuatu pengetahuan itt mengikut pengalaman masing-masing. Pembelajaran adalah hasil daripada usaha murid itu sendiri dan guru tidak boleh belajar untuk murid. Blok binaan asas bagi ilmu pengetahuan sekolah ialah satu skema iiatu aktiviti mental yang digunakan oleh murid sebagai bahan mentah bagi proses renungan dan pengabstrakan. Fikiran murid tidak akan menghadapi realiti yang wujud secara terasing dalam persekitaran. Realiti yang diketahui murid adalah realiti yang dia bina sendiri. Murid sebenarnya telah mempunyai satu set idea dan pengalaman yang membentuk struktur kognitif terhadap persekitaran mereka.

Untuk membantu murid membina konsep atau pengetahuan baru, guru harus mengambil kira struktur kognitif yang sedia ada pada mereka. Apabila maklumat baru telah disesuaikan dan diserap untuk dijadikan sebahagian daripada pegangan kuat mereka, barulah kerangka baru tentang sesuatu bentuk ilmu pengetahuan dapat dibina. Proses ini dinamakan konstruktivisme.

Beberapa ahli konstruktivisme yang terkemuka berpendapat bahawa pembelajaran yang bermakna itu bermula dengan pengetahuan atau pengalaman sedia ada murid. Rutherford dan Ahlgren berpendapat bahawa murid mempunyai idea mereka sendiri tentang hampir semua perkara, di mana ada yang betul dan ada yang salah. Jika kefahaman dan miskonsepsi ini diabaikan atau tidak ditangani dengan baik, kefahaman atau kepercayaan asal mereka itu akan tetap kekal walaupun dalam peperiksaan mereka mungkin memberi jawapan seperti yang dikehendaki oleh guru.

John Dewey menguatkan lagi teori konstruktivisme ini dengan mengatakan bahawa pendidik yang cekap harus melaksanakan pengajaran dan pembelajaran sebagai proses menyusun atau membina pengalaman secara berterusan. Beliau juga menekankan kepentingan penyertaan murid di dalam setiap aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran.

Dari persepektif epistemologi yang disarankan dalam konstruktivisme fungsi guru akan berubah. Perubahan akan berlaku dalam teknik pengajaran dan pembelajaran, penilaian, penyelidikan dan cara melaksanakan kurikulum. Sebagai contoh, perspektif ini akan mengubah kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang menumpu kepada kejayaan murid meniru dengan tepat apa saja yang disampaikan oleh guru kepada kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang menumpu kepada kejayaan murid membina skema pengkonsepan berdasarkan kepada pengalaman yang aktif. Ia juga akan mengubah tumpuan penyelidikan daripada pembinaan model daripada kaca mata guru kepada pembelajaran sesuatu konsep daripada kaca mata murid.

=**2. Sejarah Perkembangan Constructivism**=

Jean Piaget and John Dewey developed theories of childhood development and education, what we now call Progressive Education, that led to the evolution of constructivism. Piaget believed that humans learn through the construction of one logical structure after another. He also concluded that the logic of children and their modes of thinking are initially entirely different from those of adults. The implications of this theory and how he applied them have shaped the foundation for constructivist education.

Dewey called for education to be grounded in real experience. He wrote, "If you have doubts about how learning happens, engage in sustained inquiry: study, ponder, consider alternative possibilities and arrive at your belief grounded in evidence." Inquiry is a key part of constructivist learning. Among the educators, philosophers, psychologists, and sociologists who have added new perspectives to constructivist learning theory and practice are Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner and David Ausubel.Vygotsky introduced the social aspect of learning into constructivism. He defined the "zone of proximal learning," according to which students solve problems beyond their actual developmental level (but within their level of potential development) under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. Bruner initiated curriculum change based on the notion that learning is an active, social process in which students construct new ideas or concepts based on their current knowledge.

Seymour Papert's groundbreaking work in using computers to teach children has led to the widespread use of computer and information technology in constructivist environments.

=**3. Perbezaan di antara pembelajaran tradisional dan kaedah constructivisme**=


 * [[image:http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/images/traditional-tab.gif width="240" height="35"]] || [[image:http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/images/constructivist-tab.gif width="240" height="35"]] ||
 * Curriculum begins with the parts of the whole. Emphasizes basic skills. || Curriculum emphasizes big concepts, beginning with the whole and expanding to include the parts. ||
 * Strict adherence to fixed curriculum is highly valued. || Pursuit of student questions and interests is valued. ||
 * Materials are primarily textbooks and workbooks. || Materials include primary sources of material and manipulative materials. ||
 * Learning is based on repetition. || Learning is interactive, building on what the student already knows. ||
 * Teachers disseminate information to students; students are recipients of knowledge. || Teachers have a dialogue with students, helping students construct their own knowledge. ||
 * Teacher's role is directive, rooted in authority. || Teacher's role is interactive, rooted in negotiation. ||
 * Assessment is through testing, correct answers. || Assessment includes student works, observations, and points of view, as well as tests. Process is as important as product. ||
 * Knowledge is seen as inert. || Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing with our experiences. ||
 * Students work primarily alone. || Students work primarily in groups. ||

= PUSINGAN 2 =

=**1. Apakah jenis-jenis constructivism?**=

In Constructivism there are:

i) **Cognitive Constructivism** Pengasas: Jean Piaget Teori ini adalah berkenaan skemata—skema tentang bagaimana seseorang mempersepsi lingkungannya (dalam tahap-tahap perkembangan, saat seseorang memperoleh cara baru dalam merepresentasikan informasi secara mental. focused on mental processes rather than observable behavior.They argued that knowledge is seen as something that is actively constructed by learners based on their existing cognitive structures.presented as a process of active discovery.knowledge is actively constructed by learners and that any account of knowledge makes essential references to cognitive structures.Because knowledge is actively constructed, learning is presented as a process of active discovery. Here teacher's role is as a facilitate discovery by providing the necessary resources and by guiding learners as they attempt to assimilate new knowledge to old and to modify the old to accommodate the new.

ii) **Social Constructivism** ·  An approach according to which individual knowledge relies on its social construction of it. //(Piaget, Doise and Mugny, 1984)// ·     Emphasizes the importance of culture and context in understanding what occurs in society and constructing knowledge based on this understanding // (Derry, 1999; McMahon, 1997) //  ·   Focused on the roles that society plays in the development of an individual //(Vygotsky 1978)// Social constructivism is based on specific assumptions about reality, knowledge, and learning. To understand and apply models of instruction that are rooted in the perspectives of social constructivists, it is important to know the premises that underlie them.
 * Reality**: Social constructivists believe that reality is constructed through human activity. Members of a society together invent the properties of the world (Kukla, 2000). For the social constructivist, reality cannot be discovered: it does not exist prior to its social invention.
 * Knowledge**: To social constructivists, knowledge is also a human product, and is socially and culturally constructed (Ernest, 1999; Gredler, 1997; Prat & Floden, 1994). Individuals create meaning through their interactions with each other and with the environment they live in.
 * Learning**: Social constructivists view learning as a social process. It does not take place only within an individual, nor is it a passive development of behaviors that are shaped by external forces (McMahon, 1997). Meaningful learning occurs when individuals are engaged in social activities

=**2. Apakah peranan guru dalam melaksanakan teori constructivism dalam P&P?** =

**Instructors as facilitators** According to the social constructivist approach, instructors have to adapt to the role of facilitators and not teachers (Bauersfeld, 1995). Where a teacher gives a [|didactic] lecture which covers the subject matter, a facilitator helps the learner to get to his or her own understanding of the content. In the former scenario the learner plays a passive role and in the latter scenario the learner plays an active role in the learning process. The emphasis thus turns away from the instructor and the content, and towards the learner (Gamoran, Secada, & Marrett, 1998). This dramatic change of role implies that a facilitator needs to display a totally different set of skills than a teacher (Brownstein 2001). A teacher tells, a facilitator asks; a teacher lectures from the front, a facilitator supports from the back; a teacher gives answers according to a set curriculum, a facilitator provides guidelines and creates the environment for the learner to arrive at his or her own conclusions; a teacher mostly gives a monologue, a facilitator is in continuous dialogue with the learners (Rhodes and Bellamy, 1999). A facilitator should also be able to adapt the learning experience ‘in mid-air’ by using his or her own initiative in order to steer the learning experience to where the learners want to create value. The learning environment should also be designed to support and challenge the learner's thinking (Di Vesta, 1987). While it is advocated to give the learner ownership of the problem and solution process, it is not the case that any activity or any solution is adequate. The critical goal is to support the learner in becoming an effective thinker. This can be achieved by assuming multiple roles, such as consultant and coach

=**3. Apakah cabaran-cabaran yang dihadapi guru untuk melaksanakan constructivisme dalam P&P? **= 1.Your role as a teacher will change.
 * Giving up the "expert" role to become more of a facilitator can be very difficult for some teachers. Practice will help.
 * The noise level in your classroom as your students discuss and question more may drive you crazy at first.

2. Your students' roles will change. (It may take time to change long-formed habits.) Ideally,
 * They will come to understand that multiple answers are expected of them and that they will be challenged to document and defend their thinking. They will also come to understand that changing one's mind is acceptable and part of growth and learning.
 * They will develop hypotheses and test their knowledge by presenting it and working on it with others.

3. You will face institutional challenges. .
 * The constructivist learning environment has an order and structure that is often missed by the casual observer.
 * Assessment has probably always been built on standardized measurement. Constructivism calls for a reconsideration of evaluation and grading procedures. This will take more time and effort on your part. There may be resistance from parents, the community, and even the students.

= PUSINGAN 3 =

=**1. Apakah contoh-contoh aplikasi contructivism dalam P&P? **=

a) Role playing b) Peer tutoring c) Situated learning d) Anchored learning e) Problem Based learning f) Simulation g) Collaborative and cooperative learning

=**2. Apakah kesan kaedah constructivism terhadap pengajaran dalam bilik darjah **= Kesan terhadap daya pemikiran para pelajar ** - pelajar dapat mengaitkan dan merumuskan konsep-konsep yang diketahui - pelajar dapat membuat aktiviti 'problem solving' - pelajar dapatmembuat justifikasi terhadap sesuatu pemasalahan seterusnya melakukan ramalan dan membuat kesimpulan tentang masalah yang hendak diselesaikan - mencapai tahap pemikiran yang tinggi

- sikap yang lebih positif - active learning - berupaya mencari penyelesaian terhadap masalah yang dikemukakan di dalam kelas  **Kesan terhadap pembelajaran para pelajar yang lebih menyeluruh dari segi praktikal, sosial dan nilai-nilai peribadi pelajar**
 * Kesan terhadap sikap pelajar dalam proses pembelajaran**

- melatih diri secara intelektual - mengasah kemahiran komunikasi dan 'soft-skill' - kerjasama, toleransi dan bertanggungjawab - aktiviti yang berunsurkan interaksi dan sosial boleh mencerminkan keadaan dalam dunia sebenar (real-world problem) - menggalakkan semangat ingin tahu (inquiry) - budaya “//problem-solving//” dapat melatih pelajar2 untuk sentiasa menyelesaikan fenomena-fenomena yang berlaku di sekeliling mereka. - hasilnya, mereka boleh mempraktikkan pembelajaran seumur hidup ataupun “//lifelong-learning//” dengan sentiasa mengemukakan persoalan baru tentang dunia ini, diikuti dengan idea-idea baru tentang jalan penyelesaian untuk persoalan tersebut.**
 * Kesan terhadap pembelajaran para pelajar yang bersifat pembelajaran seumur hidup (“//lifelong-learning//”)**
 * **Develops higher level thinking skills**
 *  **Increases student retention**
 *  **Builds self esteem in students**
 *  **Enhances student satisfaction with the learning experience**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">**Promotes a positive attitude toward the subject matter**
 * <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">**Develops oral communication**
 * <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">**Develop social interaction skill**
 * <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">**Encourages student responsibility for learning**

=3. Apakah langkah-langkah yang boleh diambil utk mengatasi masalah pelaksanaan constructivisme?=

Teachers:
 * You must become a questioner of students to find out how they are learning as well as what they have learned.
 * You will probably have to commit to some study and discussion to strengthen the foundation of your constructivist learning philosophy.

Students: = = Institutional challenges.
 * Students must begin to take an active part in their own assessment of their knowledge and in the assessment of the learning situation.
 * The institution must engage in continual analysis of what is going on and how it can effectively communicate the educational approach to the community.
 * Administration/teacher relationships must shift from supervision and control to guidance and support.
 * Look at the country that can successfully adapt this theory such as Findland.